The Effects of Different Protocols of Plyometric Exercises as Post-Activation Potentiation on Power Performance in Athletes: A Systematic Review on PAP Studies

Background and Purpose
Enhancing muscular power capacity in competitive sports that require strength, power, and speed is of great importance. Research has shown that warming up using post-activation potentiation (PAP) can significantly improve athletic performance. Unlike traditional warm-ups, which involve low-intensity aerobic movements and stretching, the PAP method employs maximum or near-maximum intensity speed, plyometric, or resistance exercises.  The mechanisms behind PAP include improved neural conduction, increased motor unit recruitment, reduced synaptic inhibition, and mechanical adaptations such as optimized muscle-tendon junction angles. These neuromuscular adaptations are particularly effective in explosive movements like jumping and throwing. Among PAP implementation methods, plyometric exercises are considered a practical and efficient option due to their lack of special equipment requirements, lower fatigue induction, and activation of fast-twitch motor units. However, research findings in this area are inconsistent. Some studies confirm performance improvements, while others report fatigue or no significant effects due to inappropriate exercise volume or intensity. For example, high-volume exercises (such as 70 seconds of continuous tension) may lead to fatigue, whereas protocols with higher repetitions (e.g., 20 jumps) have shown favorable results. This study systematically reviews existing research to examine the variables of volume, intensity, and rest intervals in plyometric exercises, aiming to determine the optimal combination for enhancing power performance. The ultimate goal is to provide practical strategies for designing effective warm-up protocols in strength-speed sports. 
Methods & Materials
This systematic review examined research articles published in English between 2007 and 2023, sourced from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed up to August 2023, using keywords such as "post activation potentiation," "PAP," and "muscle power." Only peer-reviewed journal articles were included, excluding conference abstracts. Additional manual searches on Google Scholar ensured no relevant studies were missed. Inclusion criteria required participants aged 18–35 with at least two years of training, excluding studies using electrical stimulation or isokinetic dynamometers, and focusing on explosive power performance (e.g., jumps, throws). Two researchers independently extracted and coded data, categorizing plyometric exercises by volume (>20 or <20 reps), intensity (bodyweight-only vs. weighted), and rest intervals (<5 min, 5–10 min, >10 min) between conditioning and main activities. From 1,974 initially identified studies, 20 duplicates and 1,856 irrelevant studies were excluded, leaving 98 for full-text screening, with 24 meeting final eligibility criteria.
 
Findings
After an initial screening of 1,974 identified studies, duplicate and irrelevant articles were removed, leaving 98 studies for full-text evaluation. Ultimately, 24 eligible studies meeting the inclusion criteria—participants aged 18–35 years, at least two years of training experience, no use of electrical stimulation or isokinetic dynamometer devices, and assessment of explosive power movements—were analyzed. These studies, published between 2007 and 2021, included a total of 309 participants, with sample sizes ranging from 5 to 34 individuals.
The findings revealed that a post-activation potentiation (PAP)-based warm-up protocol using plyometric exercises could enhance athletes' performance if three key factors were considered. First, regarding exercise volume, performing movements with fewer than 20 repetitions demonstrated more positive effects compared to higher repetitions. Second, in terms of exercise intensity, bodyweight plyometric exercises (without additional resistance) were sufficient to induce adequate stimulation and improve power performance. Third, concerning rest intervals, a recovery period of less than 5 minutes between plyometric exercises and the main activity had the most beneficial impact on athletic performance.
Conclusion
This systematic review examined the impact of plyometric exercises used for post-activation potentiation (PAP) on athletes' explosive power performance (e.g., vertical jump height, discus/hammer throw distance). The analysis included 24 studies (309 participants), focusing on competitive athletes with at least two years of training experience. Key findings highlighted the influence of exercise volume, intensity, and rest intervals on PAP effectiveness.
Low-volume plyometrics (<20 reps) as a conditioning activity (CA) enhanced power performance more than high-volume protocols. Excessive repetitions (>20) led to fatigue (e.g., phosphagen depletion, hydrogen ion accumulation), masking PAP benefits. Studies suggest that <10 seconds of tension per set optimizes PAP, whereas prolonged efforts (>70 seconds) impair performance.
Bodyweight plyometrics (no external load) consistently improved power output. Adding resistance reduced movement velocity (inverse force-velocity relationship) and increased fatigue, diminishing PAP effects. Dynamic contractions in plyometrics may preferentially recruit high-threshold motor units, but excessive loading risks muscle damage (e.g., Z-line disruption) and central fatigue.
A 5-minute rest between plyometrics and the main activity balanced PAP potentiation and fatigue recovery. Shorter rests (<5 min) favored fatigue, while longer rests (>10 min) diminished PAP effects. Unlike heavy resistance training, plyometrics induced faster metabolic recovery (e.g., lactate clearance), justifying shorter rest periods. Athlete fitness level may further modulate optimal recovery timing.
Several limitations warrant consideration when interpreting these findings. The inherent heterogeneity in plyometric exercise selection across studies - encompassing variations in jump types, contact surfaces, and movement amplitudes - introduces some degree of programming ambiguity. Additionally, the reviewed literature demonstrates relative paucity in addressing potential individual response variability based on training status, fiber type distribution, or sex-specific considerations. These areas represent valuable targets for future investigative efforts.
In summary, the preponderance of evidence supports the implementation of plyometric-based PAP protocols characterized by restrained volume (below twenty repetitions), bodyweight resistance, and five-minute recovery intervals as a reliable means of enhancing acute power performance. These findings provide sports practitioners with an evidence-based framework for optimizing warm-up strategies in power-dependent disciplines, while simultaneously highlighting important avenues for continued research into individualized protocol refinement. The consistent demonstration of performance enhancements across diverse athletic populations underscores the practical value of these recommendations for competitive training environments.
 Article Message
Preparatory activities used as warm-up protocols in major athletic events to prime the neuromuscular and skeletal systems for optimal explosive performance should be carefully and intelligently selected. Among various speed and strength exercises, plyometric movements are likely a safer option for muscle potentiation. Additionally, these movements require less equipment and space compared to traditional strength and speed exercises.
Once plyometric exercises are chosen as a preparatory activity, it is advisable to perform them with fewer than 20 repetitions using body weight only. Moreover, a rest period of approximately 5 minutes after these exercises is likely sufficient for muscle potentiation.
 Acknowledgments
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to and supported this study.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest in writing this article.